This is the first time that this note covers the acceding and candidate countries, as well as the Member States and the remaining EEA countries, in an integrated way. The information on the acceding and candidate countries has been collected and edited by the European Training Foundation (ETF). Staff in Cedefop and the ETF have co-operated closely in preparing this document.
Introduction
The period does not appear to have been one in which there were major new legislative initiatives or central policy statements. One factor is however almost omnipresent in the reports received, that is reports referring to efforts by the Member States to achieve the benchmarks set down in the Lisbon process. Several, like Italy, emphasise the difficulties in attaining them, while in the Netherlands there is optimism on achieving most but not all of them. It would not seem exaggerated to draw the conclusion that considerations inspired by European level debate are increasingly seen as an important element in national policy-making and its implementation. These references to European benchmarks and policy considerations are not only drawn from reports specifically dealing with European issues, but are also found in 'normal' annual and other reports relating to national developments.
The present and future importance of the role of the European Structural Funds is referred to in a number of reports, particularly, but not only, those from the acceding countries. There are also references to training activities and initiatives involving co-operation with non-European countries, e.g. China and countries in North Africa.
The importance of the recognition of non-formal learning, particularly that taking place in the work-place is also a recurrent theme in different contexts in the reports received, as are steps to create frameworks to make this possible.
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Lifelong learning and national strategies
The French national assembly in early January gave a first reading to the draft law on lifelong vocational training and the social dialogue. This builds on the agreement reached unanimously by the social partners in September 2003 following several years of negotiation. There was a broad consensus in parliament on the training provisions, but those concerning the social dialogue were the subject of criticism and opposition. The draft has also been the subject of further debate among the social partners. The trade unions consider that some parts of it do not respect the spirit or the letter of the agreement reached in September. They underline the right of the individual to training (droit individuel ā la formation - Dif) and the need to anticipate the risks of workers within companies of becoming excluded or marginalised. The employers, on the other hand, expect an increase in the volume of training, but argue that as the amount spent on training will increase, some training should take place outside working hours.
The 2003 annual report of the Centro Studi Investimenti Sociali (Censis) finds that 30% of the Italian population aged between 25 and 70 participated in some type of learning activity. However, as half of this participation was in learning for personal, rather than occupational, development, it suggests that deeper analysis of lifelong learning is necessary.
Following the long term plan for the development of education published by the Ministry of Education, each of the 14 regions of the Czech Republic prepared their strategies in 2003. They will affect the secondary VET school network, which due to demographic decline shows an operating level of only 55-65% of its capacity. A number of VET schools will be integrated to form learning centres; from 2004 ESF support is envisaged. In September 2003, the Liberec region started a Lifelong Learning Centre pilot project, which will incorporate 24 local establishments. Regional funds and private investment have covered the costs of ICT equipment and staff training.
Hungary has completed a National Human Resource Development Programme, which includes components that are designed to strengthen vocational education and training. The overall aim is to make the VET system more flexible and responsive to labour market needs and supportive of lifelong learning. Sixteen regional integrated vocational training centres, based on existing institutions, will be established. The programme will also involve strengthening the effectiveness of the National Qualification Register (NQR) and extending the use of modules within the training system. Training the managers and teachers of the training centres, elaborating VET programmes and learning materials, and training in certain groups of qualification, are some of the activities that form an integral part of the programme. Its adoption is expected to facilitate the use of the Structural Funds.
In September 2003 the 2003-2005 Vocational Education Development Programme was approved in Latvia. Its main goal is to develop a vocational education system, which is flexible to the demands of the market economy, encourages employability and makes the labour force more competitive. The following are considered to be priorities in the area of vocational education: quality, access, management and increased effectiveness of spending. The implementation of the programme is facilitated by the decision of July 2003, whereby the whole VET system comes under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education and Science.
As part of the modernisation and decentralisation of administration in Slovakia and in line with the legislation of November 2003, a state education office has been set up in each of the 8 administrative regions. Their main tasks will be to facilitate the allocation of funds to educational institutions and the establishment of specific trans-regional schools, such as bilingual schools, special schools for disabled. The self-governing regional authorities are responsible for establishing and managing VET and other regional secondary schools. In addition, since January 2004, the former National Labour Office has been replaced by a set of state administration offices delivering integrated employment and social services via a network of 45 territorial offices. Funds for an active labour market policy, including retraining, training of disadvantaged groups and vocational guidance, will come from the state budget, but will be administered by these offices. Better targeting of retraining opportunities and relating policy to ESF priorities are among the aims of the reform.
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Schools
Since January, all schools in Norway must participate in the 'pupil-inspector' survey. This enables pupils in the final (seventh to tenth) years of lower secondary education and in the first year of general and vocational upper secondary education to evaluate their school and, by giving their views on important issues, to improve the quality of the education they receive. It is part of a wider plan of the Ministry of Education and Research to get pupils to exercise their rights and influence the running of their school.
New legislation in Slovakia (see above) introduced an important change affecting appointment procedures and the terms of office of school directors (including those of VET schools). A five-year period of office has been introduced with obligatory open recruitment procedures upon each office expiry. The number of periods for the director to remain in office is not limited.
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School/industry co-operation
In Germany the results of a survey of some 1 700 companies, which had offered short-term placements to lower (Haupt) and intermediary (Real) secondary school pupils in companies were very encouraging. 90% of companies requested to do so were prepared to take trainees and 90% of these had a positive experience. The programme under the motto of Beruf fängt in der Schule an ('An occupation begins in school') aims to provide pupils with an opportunity for practical experience and therefore assistance in their choice of occupation and training.
The aims of the Danish government's programme 'A society with room for free initiative', is to strengthen the culture of entrepeneurship, particularly among pupils and students, by having schools and universities, which are more open and invite industry and business to become involved in education. Self-employed parents should be invited to talk about their experience in the classroom. Entrepreneurs can now be employed in educational establishments as part-time external lecturers, while in future, work experience as an entrepreneur will be recognised as a valuable, informally obtained, teaching qualification. An Academy of Entrepreneurship, where VET and university students can enlist in courses leading to a new formal qualification as entrepreneur, is envisaged.
In Estonia, VET teacher qualification requirements have been under constant debate and change. The question is what is the best balance for vocational teachers to have between practical experience and a formal education background. In December 2003, it was made legally possible to hire specialists working in enterprises for part time teaching. The recruitment requirements are the same as those for full-time VET teachers under a 2002 regulation, i.e. higher or post secondary technical education and at least 3 years of work experience in the field.
The majority of vocational schools in Lithuania have the legal status of non-profit governmental organisations. Forthcoming measures include a change in their status, which will empower employers to directly participate in school management. Following a pilot project, which started in September 2003, employers, parents and other stakeholder representatives will be involved in school governance. The aims are to improve the responsiveness of training to labour market needs, to strengthen social partnership and to diversify potential funding sources.
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Initial vocational education and training
The Danish government has decided to reduce the numbers of school-based training places within the apprenticeship scheme from 7 000 to 1 200. There will, in future, only be school-based training places in those sectors where a skill shortage is anticipated, or for those apprentices who have lost their training place due to closure of their company. The school-based system was launched in 1991, due to the shortage of company based places and was financed through the employers' reimbursement scheme (AER). In future school-based apprentices will no longer receive an apprentice wage, but a grant from the student education grant and loan scheme (SU). The state will bear the other costs of the training. In exchange the employers will now take over the costs of adult vocational training.
In Cyprus the reformed curriculum for the final year of study at secondary technical and vocational education (STVE) was introduced in September 2003. This completed the curricular reform of the three-year STVE cycle. The curriculum is organised in 11 broad clusters, with a common first year, branching into specialities in the second and third years. Professional associations and sectoral representatives took an active part in its development, while implementation is to be facilitated by a change agent team at each STVE school. The main focus is on core skills and new technologies, a student-centred approach, and improved horizontal and vertical mobility.
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Learning after compulsory school
A November 2003 report from the Learning and Skills Research Centre sets out, for the first time, a baseline forecast of future participation in post compulsory learning in England. Called Prospects for growth it confirms the need for new policies such as those outlined in the government's July 2003 Skills Strategy. It is concluded that at this stage the underlying growth rate is low and that without intervention, numbers will increase by only 2% by 2008, with the highest increase being in participation by those in the 41-50 age group.
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Continuing vocational training
The Italian Minister of Labour and Social Policy issued a circular in December 2003 concerning the joint multi-sectoral funds, established under the April 2003 inter-ministerial decree. The circular establishes criteria and methods for the management of the funds, specifying three general types of expenditure. These relate to management, measures to draw up and publicise training opportunities and programmes, and the direct costs of the training activities themselves. The Ministry is also proceeding to the establishment of a national continuing vocational training (CVT) observatory, which will make proposals and guidelines relating to the activity of the funds.
A recently published report on a 2002 survey in Ireland found that in the four weeks preceding the survey, 7.7% of those of working age participated in education and training. This is an increase from less than 5% in 1996, but still lower than the EU average of 8.4%. The figure for the self-employed was only 3.3%, but that for women was almost three times that for men. The report concludes that there is no single policy, which will counter the lack of participation in CVT, but suggested individual learning accounts and training leave schemes as possible options.
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Quality of VET
The recently published annual report of the Italian Ministry of Labour and Social Policy describes the new instruments to improve the quality of VET and refers to the European strategy in this connection, mentioning the accreditation of training providers, new certification systems, the training of trainers, guidance and new e-learning methods. The Austrian Institute for Vocational Training Research (öibf) is developing an on-line catalogue containing quality criteria for general and vocational adult training provision. This has been prepared in the context of a boom in the continuing training market, which has resulted not only in a multiplication of training providers, but also a growing need for guidelines. These should help the 'consumer' to make an informed judgement on the quality and relevance of the education/training provided.
- Increased access to, and improved quality of, continuing education are major aims of the Development Strategy for Continuing Education until 2010, which was adopted by the Polish government last year. As one of the first steps to implement this strategy, in December 2003, the Minister of Education and Sport introduced new regulations for the accreditation of establishments, which offer continuing education and training outside schools. The criteria include qualifications of the teaching staff, equipment, teaching methods and learning materials. Based on the criteria and an evaluation carried out by an accreditation team, a ministry representative at regional level (the kurator) makes the final decision on the accreditation of a particular establishment. So far, the institutional framework for accreditation has been set up and staff have received relevant training.
In November 2003, a quality assurance pilot project was successfully finalised and quality awards made to nine VET institutions in Estonia. The project workgroup using a total quality management methodology selected 12 VET schools out of a total of 80. The self-assessment reports focused on leadership, policy and strategy, employees, partners and resources, teaching processes and results related to clients. A manual summarising the experience was published on CD. The project will continue in 2004.
In Latvia the development of new vocational standards in co-operation with social partners continued. In November 2003, the Register of Vocational Standards included 206 vocational standards out of the envisaged 500. Seventy of them had been developed and approved in 2003. The Register contains vocational standards for the national ISCED-based qualification levels, including also those professions, which require higher education.
In 2003, procedures for preparing occupational standards were agreed in Slovenia. In October, a regulation by the Ministry of Labour redefined some of the procedures and institutions involved in the preparation of occupational standards. Since then, eight sectoral committees and one for coordination have been constituted on the proposal of the social partners. They design qualification structures, select occupations and propose experts as members of working groups. These latter prepare or revise occupational standards and catalogues of knowledge and skills. The sectoral committees then check their quality and content, and submit them for approval to the council of experts for VET (a national tripartite body deciding upon standards, programmes and accreditation of teachers). In 2003, the council adopted 71 occupational standards and 33 catalogues of knowledge and skills, achieving a total of adopted 96 standards and 61 catalogues since the activity started in 2002.
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Validation of skills acquired by experience
In France, the organisational framework, necessary to facilitate the validation of skills that people have acquired by experience (validation des acquis de l'expérience -VAE), should be operational in 2004. The national commission for vocational certification (Commission nationale de la certification professionnelle -Cncp) is establishing a network of specialised advisory relay points to provide information to all those interested in VAE. These are inter-service regional units financed by the state and the regional councils. In addition, in spring 2004, a first electronic version of the national directory of available vocational certification will be available to the public.
In December, a Spanish Royal Decree established guidelines for vocational certificates (certificados de profesionalidad), which accredit vocational competences obtained through continuing or occupational (ocupacional) vocational training measures, under apprenticeship contracts, or through work experience or other non-formal learning methods. This completes work, which commenced in 1995 and led to regulations issued by the Ministry of Work and Social Affairs relating to 130 different occupations. These in turn were structured in 26 occupational families and over five levels (taking into account those established by the European Union). They were published as a national catalogue of vocational qualifications (Catálogo nacional de Cualificaciones Profesionales- CNFP) in a Royal Decree of September 2003, following consultation with the general council of vocational training and the school state council.
In Sweden, the Minister of Education and Science decided in December 2003 to set up a task force, with a budget of ca. six million Euro, to support and promote validation during the period 2004 to 2007. The task force, in which the social partners and experts are participating, is to develop basic rules and regulations and ensure a high quality service. The committee will also strongly promote regional cooperation with a view to achieving the necessary conditions for development, advising, promoting and follow up.
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Credit transfer
In November, the German Federal and Länder educational authorities and the universities, in a common declaration, called for a greater recognition of knowledge and skills obtained outside the universities, in university admission procedures. This particularly refers to those who have had initial or further vocational training and is seen as a means of optimising the efficiency of various educational pathways within a framework of lifelong learning.
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Financing training and innovation
During 2004, the Flemish Minister of the Economy intends to extend the use of training cheques to the non-profit sector. Already more than 51 000 employees in the business community have applied to the Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (VDAB) for these cheques to 'buy' accredited training. Employees pay 50% of the cost, the government the other half.
From 2004, in Austria there is further financial support for those in employment involved in university education. It is expected that some 10 000 people will avail of the opportunity to claim tax relief on fees paid. A trade union evaluation of the educational voucher system for continuing training found that 45% of those asked would not have taken the course if it had not been for the financial support provided and 18% were, due to the vouchers, taking part in their first continuing training ever.
The new Slovak Act on financing schools (including VET) and the subsequent Government Regulation of December 2003 have introduced two innovations: funding of schools is strictly based on the per capita principle, and public and non-public schools are equally treated with regard to their subsidy for current expenditures from the state budget. The calculations are based on type of school, number of students, length of heating period, educational programme, number of students with disabilities and number of part-time students. The new scheme is expected to motivate school directors to make full use of the school capacity. The envisaged financial incentives to motivate business to co-finance VET are still pending.
The Flemish government and social partners are participating in an on-going debate on the financing of training, innovation and research. The government has proposed consolidating all public resources for the training of employees in a training fund, which should facilitate and encourage employers seeking money for training. In a broader context it is proposed that 3% of GDP should be spent on scientific research, with two thirds of that coming from business and one-third from government.
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Information and communication technologies
In October 2003, the Czech government reviewed the implementation of its ICT policy in education launched in 2000. The policy aims at providing schools with ICT facilities, ensuring adequate teacher training, and involving schools in ICT training for citizens by 2006. Due to organisational and financial challenges, progress has been slower than expected. The review found that while most of the schools had the necessary equipment, ICT supported learning had only been established in 60% of the schools and only 6-8% of them used computers in non-IT subjects. 75% of teachers were computer-literate. The government has now decided to evaluate progress on an annual basis so as to ensure that the objectives are achieved by 2006.
Currently only some schools in Turkey have Internet access through dial-up connection. The Ministry of Education is planning to provide educational institutions with high-speed Internet access by the end of 2004. By the end of February 2004 about every tenth educational institution will have this type of Internet access under present plans. The Ministry also intends to develop an education portal, which will provide support services to teachers, students and families.
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Distance learning
In 2004, the distance learning programme (Begeleid Individueel Studeren-BIS) provided in Belgium by the Flemish Ministry of Education will offer its courses on the Internet. Language and information technology (IT) courses will have priority along with one on health and safety at work. The number of participants in BIS grew from over 23 000 in 2001 to over 28 000 in 2003. The modular on-line courses will further empower the student in the choice of what and when to learn. Within the framework of an INTERREG project, the Walloon office for vocational training and employment (Forem) has also been developing delivery of ITC training using distance learning modules.
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Vocational guidance
In November 2003, the Lithuanian Ministry of Education and Science and the Ministry of Social Security and Labour approved a strategy for vocational guidance. The development of an Open Information, Counselling and Guidance system (AIKOS) is one of the key components of the strategy. AIKOS will draw on data from various databases, e.g. those of the Ministry of Education and Science and the Lithuanian Labour Exchange and will provide users with qualitative information on occupational choice, training and employment possibilities. It will also be linked to Ploteus, the European portal on learning opportunities.
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Skills shortages
The industrial federation (Agoria) is concerned about the future of engineers in Flanders. Figures indicate that the number of first year students training to become engineers has been more than halved since 1987/88 and that a third of all vacancies for engineers are not filled. To rectify this situation it is suggested that technical secondary education must regain the status of equality with general secondary education it used to have. In addition three-year courses leading to a bachelor degree and a diploma permitting entrance to the labour market, followed if necessary by a two-year masters course, should be introduced.
In September 2003, the German office for the certification of IT specialists (Cert-IT) began its work. It was established by the IT industry and supported by the social partners and scientific organisations. It will provide certification for the 29 specialist profiles, which exist in the new further education and training system.
A report on the skills needs of the financial services area in Ireland identified a number of sectoral characteristics. These included a lack of requirement for mandatory qualifications for most of the skills analysed, a high incidence of training through continuous, rather than initial, education processes, and a wide variation in the time taken to attain qualification. It also identified the need for a combination of specific skills in some occupations. However, it concluded that overall supply would meet demand in the short term.
In Romania a skills audit survey in companies located in the most disadvantaged regions was completed in autumn 2003. According to the survey, low-qualified jobs are disappearing and there is not much job mobility. Although 40% of the companies still have skills shortages/open vacancies and skill needs are growing, half of the companies do not consider it a structural problem. Almost half of the companies surveyed prefer to fill skill gaps and vacancies with their own staff resources and to train their employees. More than half of the companies stated that they have no links at all with educational institutions.
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Social partners
The Belgian social partners, meeting in the framework of the employment conference in late 2003, confirmed the objective of allocating 1.9% of the total wage bill to training. Between 2004 and 2010, every second worker should participate in training. Special attention must be given by sectors and companies to the needs of the aged, the less well qualified, people with disabilities and foreigners. Training plans at sectoral and company level should be drawn up and implemented.
In Latvia, social partner involvement in VET is well developed at national level. Currently steps are being taken to improve co-operation at regional and local levels. The first regional tripartite council for co-operation in VET and employment was established at Rezekne in September 2003. It comprises representatives of the State, local government, the employment office, the chamber of crafts, enterprises and trade unions. Its main tasks are to promote co-operation and quality in the field of VET, including continuing training, and to develop employment. The council will also be involved in co-ordinating the activities of the regional examination centre, organising work placements, fostering the exchange of information and accrediting education establishments and programmes.
In September 2003, the Polish Ministry of Education and Sport and the confederation of employers signed an agreement aimed at improving the level of vocational and continuing education and training in schools. This agreement is expected to encourage members of the confederation to become more involved in the education and training of their future employees and to provide work placements and financial assistance to schools and other public educational establishments for the purchase of teaching aids and equipment.
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Target groups
In December 2003, Portugal launched its 2003-2005 national action plan for social inclusion. Amongst the measures are promotion of lifelong learning as an instrument of developing knowledge, competencies and qualifications with special attention for the most vulnerable groups, developing the use of ICTs, adapting work stations and increasing technical aids, particularly to increase participation in work and in society by handicapped persons.
In Finland, 7% of the cohort leave comprehensive schools and do not go on to either full-time general (54%) or vocational (36%) education. In addition some 8-12% (mainly males) start vocational education, but drop out of it. To prevent their social exclusion, the youth participation project (2003-2007) is geared to the needs of these groups with a view to enabling everybody to lead a full life and to participate in the management of their personal affairs. Each young person is offered personal guidance and an education guarantee. The project funded by the Ministry of Education is co-ordinated by the National Board of Education and consists of 39 local projects located in 75 municipalities. Social partners, youth and church organisations as well as regional and local authorities participate.
In Ireland, due to a new and growing multi-ethnic and multi-cultural labour force, questions relating to access to training and the necessary diversity of that training have been raised in recent reports. Guidelines directed at employers, trade unions and others involved in delivering training at enterprise level have been drawn up to help in the provision of training, which takes account of the cultural diversity of participants.
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Visions of the future
In the United Kingdom, a report, entitled 'Learning from the future' was published by the Learning and Skills Research Centre (attached to the Learning and Skills Development Agency) in November 2003. It contains the results of an independent programme of research, consultation and communication about people's lives in the next 20 years. The report asks questions in four blocks. These concern 'Where are we now?', 'What will influence the future?', 'What are the possible outcomes (scenarios)?' and 'So what?' The four scenarios are based on consideration of issues such as skill shortages, the greater or lesser involvement and investment by public authorities in education and training systems, securing closer integration between different parts of the learning and skills sector and embracing new methods of teaching and learning etc.
The Austrian Ministry for Education and Science has launched an initiative, under the title 'klasse: zukunft'. This has the aim of stimulating a broadly-based debate at all levels within the education and training system on how to maintain the high quality of the system and ensure that it provides young people with the best learning and career prospects so that they can compete with their equivalents from other countries.
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European benchmarks
In October 2003, the Dutch Education Council underlined the need for prudence in making international comparisons and in measuring progress towards achievement of international benchmarks. It suggested that the Netherlands was well placed in relation to reducing the number of early school-leavers, increasing the numbers completing higher secondary education, increasing the educational attainment levels of 15 year-olds (although teacher shortages could have a negative effect here) and increasing participation in lifelong learning. However, much needs to be done in relation to training more highly skilled professionals, scientists and engineers (above all women). The Council warned about the dangers of making comparisons and drawing incorrect conclusions about progress made, for example due to different starting points. It also suggested that the Dutch EU-Council presidency might be a time to introduce a new benchmark, i.e. one to measure the basic skills of all (potential) employees.
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Mobility
Through its '10 000 stages en Europe' programme, the French government intends during 2004 to provide opportunities for young French people to have an in-company training place in any one of the 25 countries of the enlarged EU or for young people from other European countries to do the same in France. The programme interlocks with the LdV and Erasmus programmes and a number of large companies have already offered places.
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